Relationship of Trait Self-Esteem to State Self-Esteem：
Social- and Individual-Oriented Perspectives


Chuan Feng Pan
Department of Psychology
Fo Guang College of Humanities and Social Sciences



Abstract
The present study mainly aimed to empirically probing the relationship between Chinese trait self-esteem and state self-esteem. K. S. Yang’s three-facet theory of self-esteem was relied upon as a theoretical scheme for making distinction between and among different hinds of trait and state self-esteem. It was conceptually inferred that there should be a positive relationship between trait and state self-esteem. To test this grand hypothesis, 478 college students (201 males and 277 females) from various universities in Taiwan were used as subjects or participants. Tools administered to the participants for assessing the different kinds of trait self-esteem and state-esteem are all newly developed indigenous standardized scales and tried-out scenarios with relevant rating scales. Data analyses generated these major findings:

1. Global state self-esteem and specific state self-esteem were indeed found to be positively correlated with global trait self-esteem and specific trait self-esteem. It may thus be said that the lather affects the former.
2. Global state self-esteem was substantially correlated with specific state self-esteem.
3. At bath the global and specific levels, it is rather difficult to divide state self-esteem into social-oriented and individual-oriented. Basically, the global state self-esteem and specific state self-esteem tend to be social-oriented in nature.
4. Under the success situation, high vs. low trait self-esteem, public vs. private condition, and stories with different orientations all had statistically significant main effects on the increase of global and specific state self-esteem. On the other hand, under the failure situation, these same independent variables failed to have statistically significant main effects and interaction effects on the decrease of global and specific state self-esteem.

Keywords : self-esteem, trait self-esteem, state self-esteem, global self-esteem, specific self-esteem, global trait self-esteem, specific trait self-esteem, global state self-esteem, specific state self-esteem, individual-oriented self-esteem, social-oriented self-esteem, relationship-oriented self-esteem, familistic (group) -oriented self-esteem, other-oriented self-esteem.
目錄
頁碼
第一章 緒論 …………………………………………………………………………… 1
第一節 研究背景…………………………………………………………………… 1
第二節 研究目的…………………………………………………………………… 3
第二章 自我與華人自我………………………………………………………………… 6
第一節 自我………………………………………………………………………… 6
第二節 華人自我…………………………………………………………………… 10
第三章 自尊與華人自尊………………………………………………………………… 15
第一節 自尊………………………………………………………………………… 15
第二節 華人自尊…………………………………………………………………… 22
第四章 華人自尊的測量………………………………………………………………… 29
第一節 華人特質自尊測量………………………………………………………… 29
第二節 華人狀態自尊測量………………………………………………………… 34
第五章 研究假設………………………………………………………………………… 38
第六章 研究方法………………………………………………………………………… 46
第一節 研究設計…………………………………………………………………… 46
第二節 研究對象…………………………………………………………………… 46
第三節 研究工具…………………………………………………………………… 47
第四節 研究程序…………………………………………………………………… 50
第七章 研究結果與討論………………………………………………………………… 51
第一節 狀態自尊的種類…………………………………………………………… 51
第二節 特質自尊與狀態自尊的關係……………………………………………… 66
第三節 影響狀態自尊的因素……………………………………………………… 77
第八章 綜合討論與建議………………………………………………………………… 89
第一節 研究特色…………………………………………………………………… 89
第二節 綜合討論…………………………………………………………………… 91
第三節 具體建議…………………………………………………………………… 96
參考文獻…………………………………………………………………………………… 98
附錄一：華人整體特質自尊量表………………………………………………………… 106
附錄二：華人多元特質自尊量表………………………………………………………… 107
附錄三：華人狀態自尊之模擬故事問卷（模擬故事的範例版本）……………………… 110
附錄四：背景資料問卷…………………………………………………………………… 122
附錄五：以概念分析所界定的狀態自尊之問卷題目…………………………………… 123
附錄六：整體狀態自尊的三因子變異量分析…………………………………………… 126
附錄七：特殊狀態自尊的三因子變異量分析…………………………………………… 131


圖表目錄
圖目錄
圖1 特質自尊與狀態自尊及其相關因素的概念架構…………………………………………… 5
圖2 華人自尊的三面向模式……………………………………………………………………… 28

表目錄
表1 東方人之自我與西方人之自我的對照………………………………………………………… 11
表2 特質自尊與狀態自尊之概念差異…………………………………………………………… 20
表3 自尊構念的再分類…………………………………………………………………………… 21
表4 特質自尊的類別及其互動對象與正面評價的主要基礎…………………………………… 24
表5 華人特殊特質自尊的類別與向度之關係…………………………………………………… 30
表6 「個人能力與獨立」因素之主要題目及其因素負荷量…………………………………… 30
表7 「體能健康與外表」因素之主要題目及其因素負荷量…………………………………… 31
表8 「人際關係與人緣」因素之主要題目及其因素負荷量…………………………………… 32
表9 「家人情感與互動」因素之主要題目及其因素負荷量…………………………………… 33
表10 「家世背景與經濟」因素之主要題目及其因素負荷量…………………………………… 33
表11 「社會認同與關懷」因素之主要題目及其因素負荷量…………………………………… 34
表12 模擬故事內容的主題與主角性別之整理…………………………………………………… 35
表13 整體性狀態自尊感受（以成功經驗為例）………………………………………………… 37
表14 特殊性狀態自尊感受（以人際關係方面為例）…………………………………………… 37
表15 特質自尊與成敗經驗對狀態自尊之互涉性影響的預測…………………………………… 41
表16 特質自尊、成敗經驗及公私情境對狀態自尊之互涉性影響的預測……………………… 44
表17 樣本人數分配………………………………………………………………………………… 46
表18 不同取向之模擬故事下的受試者人數……………………………………………………… 52
表19-1 整體狀態自尊的探索性因素分析結果：個人取向的故事………………………………… 53
表19-2 整體狀態自尊的探索性因素分析結果：關係取向的故事………………………………… 54
表19-3 整體狀態自尊的探索性因素分析結果：家族取向的故事………………………………… 56
表19-4 整體狀態自尊的探索性因素分析結果：他人取向的故事………………………………… 57
表19-5 特殊狀態自尊的探索性因素分析結果：個人取向的故事………………………………… 58
表19-6 特殊狀態自尊的探索性因素分析結果：關係取向的故事………………………………… 60
表19-7 特殊狀態自尊的探索性因素分析結果：家族取向的故事………………………………… 61
表19-8 特殊狀態自尊的探索性因素分析結果：他人取向的故事………………………………… 62
表20 成敗事件下狀態自尊的增減與情緒強度之簡單相關係數………………………………… 67
表21 成敗事件下整體特質自尊與整體狀態自尊之簡單相關係數……………………………… 69
表22 成敗事件下整體特質自尊與概念分析所界定的整體狀態自尊之簡單相關係數……… 69
表23-1 成敗事件下特殊特質自尊與特殊狀態自尊之簡單相關係數……………………………… 69
表23-2 不同取向故事之成敗事件下特殊特質自尊與特殊狀態自尊之簡單相關係數…………… 71
表24-1 成功事件下特殊特質自尊預測特殊狀態自尊之逐步多元迴歸係數……………………… 71
表24-2 在不同故事類型中，不同取向故事之成功事件下特殊特質自尊預測特殊狀態自尊之逐步多元迴歸係數…………………………………………………………………… 72
表25 成敗事件下特殊特質自尊與概念分析所界定的特殊狀態自尊之簡單相關係數………… 73
表26 成敗事件下整體狀態自尊與特殊狀態自尊之簡單相關係數……………………………… 73
表27 成敗事件下概念分析所界定之整體狀態自尊與概念分析所界定特殊狀態自尊的簡單相關係數………………………………………………………………………… 73
表28 整體特質自尊高低兩組之整體狀態自尊分數的描述統計………………………………… 77
表29 「個人能力與獨立」之特殊特質自尊高低兩組之整體狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………………………………………………… 78
表30 故事情境兩組之整體狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………… 79
表31 「人際關係與人緣」之特殊特質自尊高低兩組之整體狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………………………………………………… 79
表32 「家人情感與互動」之特殊特質自尊高低兩組之整體狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………………………………………………… 80
表33 「社會認同與道德」之特殊特質自尊高低兩組之整體狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………………………………………………… 81
表34 不同取向故事下特殊狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………… 82
表35 故事情境兩組之特殊狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………… 82
表36 整體特質自尊高低兩組之特殊狀態自尊分數的描述統計………………………………… 82

表37 「個人能力與獨立」之特殊特質自尊高低兩組之特殊狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………………………………………………… 84
表38 「人際關係與人緣」之特殊特質自尊高低兩組之特殊狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………………………………………………… 85
表39 「家人情感與互動」之特殊特質自尊高低兩組之特殊狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………………………………………………… 86
表40 「社會認同與道德」之特殊特質自尊高低兩組之特殊狀態自尊分數的描述統計…………………………………………………………………………………… 87
表41 研究假設與研究結果之對照………………………………………………………………… 91
參考文獻

吳淑敏 (2000)：＜大專學生自尊、情緒智慧及成功期望之關係研究＞。《教育研究》，8，161-176。
吳銘玟 (2001)：《青少年自尊內容向度之建構研究》。國立中正大學心理學研究所，碩士論文。
林文瑛、王震武、黃富源 (1999)：＜青少年犯罪形成歷程的學校因素探討＞。見瞿海源、蕭代基，及楊國樞主編：《台灣社會問題研究》。台北：巨流圖書公司。
林杏足 (1997)：《諮商中當事人自尊改變歷程之分析研究》。國立彰化師範大學輔導與諮商學系，博士論文。
翁淑緣(1985)：＜青少年的自尊以及相關變項的研究＞。《教育與心理研究》，8，79-114。
翁嘉英 (1996)：《失能性慢性病患之自我評價歷程與自尊感對其初期因應策略的影響》。國立台灣大學心理學研究所，博士論文。
翁嘉英、楊國樞 (2001)：＜社會取向與個人取向的自尊：概念分析與量表建立＞。見《華人本土心理學研究追求卓越計畫：90年度計畫執行報告書》。台北：國立台灣大學心理學系追求卓越計畫辦公室。
翁嘉英、楊國樞、許燕 (2004)：＜社會取向與個人取向的自尊：概念分析與實徵測量＞。見《「華人的自我歷程、自我概念及自我評價」研討會會議手冊暨論文集》。宜蘭縣礁溪：佛光人文社會學院心理學研究所。
翁嘉英、楊國樞、許燕 (2005)：＜華人多元自尊量表的內容、信度、及校度＞。未發表論文。
張春興 (2000) ：《張氏心理學辭典》。台北：東華書局，586。
陳俐君 (2002)：《青少年自尊、親子關係、性態度與性行為之關係研究》。國立彰化師範大學輔導與諮商學系，碩士論文。
陳淑娟(1995)：＜台中師院初教系學生性別角色與自尊關係之探討＞。《台中師院學報》，9，1-21。
陸 洛 (2003)：〈人我關係之界定 —「折衷自我」的現身〉。《本土心理學研究》，20，139-207。
陸 洛、楊國樞 (2005)：＜社會取向與個人取向的自我實現觀：概念分析與實徵初探＞。《本土心理學研究》，23，3-70。
項維彬 (2001)：《中國人對自我相關訊息的記憶》。國立中正大學心理學研究所，碩士論文。
黃光國 (1995)：《知識與行動》。台北：心理出版社。
楊中芳 (1991)：＜試論中國人的「自己」：理論與研究方向＞。見楊中芳、高尚仁 (主編)：《中國人、中國心—人格與社會篇》。台北：遠流出版公司。
楊國樞 (1981)：＜中國人的性格與行為：形成及蛻變＞。《中華心理學刊》，23(1)，39-55。
楊國樞 (1992)：《中國人的心理與行為：理念及方法篇》。台北：桂冠圖書公司。
楊國樞 (1993)：＜中國人的社會取向：社會互動的觀點＞。見楊國樞、余安邦主編：《中國人的心理與行為－理論及方法(1992)》。台北：桂冠圖書公司。
楊國樞 (1994)：《中國人的價值觀－社會科學觀點》。台北：桂冠圖書公司。
楊國樞 (2002a)：＜中國人的社會取向：社會互動的觀點＞。見楊國樞著：《華人心理的本土化研究》。台北：桂冠圖書公司。
楊國樞 (2002b)：＜中國人的家族主義：概念分析與實徵衡鑑＞。見楊國樞著：《華人心理的本土化研究》。台北：桂冠圖書公司。
楊國樞 (2002c)：＜個人取向與社會取向的自我提昇及自我改進＞。見《華人本土心理學研究追求卓越計畫：91年度計畫執行報告書》。台北：國立台灣大學心理學系追求卓越計畫辦公室。
楊國樞 (2004)：〈華人自我的理論分析與實徵研究：社會取向與個人取向的觀點〉。《本土心理學研究》，22，11-80。
楊國樞 (2005)：＜華人社會取向的理論分析＞。見楊國樞、黃光國、楊中芳主編：《華人本土心理學》。台北：遠流出版公司。
楊國樞、余安邦、葉明華 (1991)：〈中國人的個人傳統性與現代性：概念與測量〉。見楊國樞、黃光國 (主編)：《中國人的心理與行為(1989)》。台北：桂冠圖書公司。
楊國樞、陸 洛 (2005)：＜社會取向自我實現者與個人取向自我實現者的心理特徵：概念分析與實徵衡鑑＞。《本土心理學研究》，23，71-145。
葉明華、楊國樞 (1997)。＜中國人的家族主義：概念分析與實徵衡鑑＞。《中央研究院民族學研究所集刊》，83，169-225。
劉淑娟 (1986)：《護理學生自我實現、社會支持、焦慮特質與焦慮狀態之關係》。國防醫學院護理研究所，碩士論文 。
劉樹斐 (1999)：《自尊的多面向對大學生憂鬱與攻擊行為的影響》。國立政治大學心理學系，碩士論文。
樊景立、鄭伯壎 (1997)：＜華人自評式績效考核中的自謙偏差：題意、謙虛、價值及自尊之影響＞。《中華心理學刊》，39 (2)，103-118。
Anderson, E. (1994). The code of the streets. Atlantic Monthly, 273 (5), 81-94.
Aro, H. M. (1994). Risk and protective factors in depression: A developmental perspective. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 89, 59-64.
Banaji, M. R., ＆ Prentice, D. A. (1994). The self in social contexts. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 297-332.
Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Identity, self-concept, and self-esteem: The self lost and found. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, ＆ S. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology. New York: Academic Press.
Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (1985). Self-esteem and responses to success and failure: Subsequent performance and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality, 53, 450-467.
Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Hutton, D. G. (1989). Self presentational motivations and personality differences in self-esteem. Journal of Personality, 57, 547-579.
Blaine, B., & Crocker, J. C. (1993). Self-esteem and self-serving biases in reaction to positive and negative events: An integrative review. In R. Baumeister (Ed.), Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard. New York: Plenum Press.
Branden, N. (1990). What is self-esteem? ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 325 783.
Brewer, M. B. & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is the “we”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Vol. 71, No.1, 83-93.
Brown G. W., & Harris, T. (1978). Social origins of depression: A study of psychiatric disorder in women. London: Tavistock Publications.
Brown, J. D., & Dutton, K. A. (1995). The thrill of victory, the complexity of defeat： Self-esteem and people's emotional reactions to success and failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 712-722.
Burger, J. M. (1993). Personality (3th ed.). New York：Guilford Press. 林宗鴻譯(1997)：《人格心理學》。台北：揚智出版社。
Burr, W. R., ＆ Christensen, C. (1992). Undesirable side effects of enhancing self-esteem. Family Relations, 41, 264-272.
Butler, A. C., Hokanson, J. E., & Flynn, H. A. (1994). A comparison of self- esteem liability and low trait self-esteem as vulnerability factors for depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 166-177.
Campbell, R. N. (1984). The New Science: Self-Esteem Psychology. Boston: University Press of America.
Campbell, J. D., ＆ Lavallee, L. F. (1993). Who am I？ The role of self-concept confusion in understanding the behavior of people with low self-esteem. In R. Baumeister (Ed.), Self-esteem： The puzzle of low self-regard. New York: Plenum Press.
Carlock, C. J. (Ed.). (1999). Enhancing self-esteem (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Accelerated Development.
Cast, A. D., ＆ Burke, P. J. (2002). A theory of self-esteem. Social Forces, 80(3), 1041-1068.
Cederblad, M., Dahlin, L., Hagnell, O., ＆ Hansson, K. (1994). Salutogenic childhood factors reported by middle-aged individuals：Follow-up of the children from the Lundby Study grown up in families experiencing three or more childhood psychiatric risk factors. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 244(1), 1-11.
Cohen, A. R. (1959). Some implications of self-esteem for social influence. In C. Hovland ＆ L. L. Janis (Eds.), Personality and persuasibility, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human nature and social order. New York: Scribner's.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C.T. (2001). Contingencies of worth. Psychological Review, 108, 593–623.
Epstein, S. (1983). The unconscious, the preconscious, and the self-concept. In J. Suls & A. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self: Vol. 2.
Epstein, S. (1991). Cognitive-experiential self theory: Implications for developmental psychology. In M. R. Gunnar ＆ L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self processes and development: The Minnesota symposium on child development: Vol.2. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Frey, D., & Carlock, C .J. (1989). Enhancing self-esteem. Bristol, PA: Accelerated Development.
Goffman E. (1956). Embarrassment and social organisation. The American Journal of Sociology, 62(3), 264-274.
Greenier, K. D., Kernis, M. H., & Waschull, S. B. (1995). Not all high (or low) self-esteem people are the same: Theory and research on stability of self- esteem. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem. New York: Plenum.
Greenwald A. G., & Pratkanis, A. R. (1984). The self. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J. (1991). Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(6), 895-910.
Heller, K. A., & Parsons, J. E. (1981). Sex differences in teacher's evaluative feedback and students' expectancies for success in mathematics. Child Development, 52, 1015-1019.
Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R, Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard? Psychological Review, 106, 766-794.
Ho, D. Y. F. (何友暉) (1991). Relational orientation and methodological relationalism. Bulletin of the Hong Kong Psychological Society, 26-27, 81-95.
Hort, B., Fagot, B., & Leinbach, M. (1990). Are peoples’ actions of maleness more stereotypedly framed than their notions of femaleness? Sex Roles, 2303-4, 197-212.
Hoyle, R. H., Kernis, M. H., Leary, M. R., & Baldwin, M. W. (1999). Selfhood: Identity, esteem, regulation. Boulder, CO：Westview.
Hsu, F. L. K. (許烺光) (1971). Psycho-social homeostasis and Jen: Conceptual tools for advancing psychological anthropology. American Anthropologist, 73, 23-44.
James, W. (1890/1950). The principle of psychology. New York: Dover.
Jaqaish, G. A., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (1981). Biological and ecological factors in the expression of adolescent self-esteem. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 10(6), 473-485.
Kashima, E. S., & Hardie, E. A. (2000). The development and validation of the individual, relational, collective self-aspects (RIC) scale. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 19-48.
Kernis, M. H., Grannemann, B. D., & Barclay, L. C. (1989). Stability and level of self-esteem as predictors of anger arousal and hostility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 1013-1022.
Kernis, M. H., Whisenhunt, C. R., Waschull, S. B., Greenier, K. D., Berry, A. J., Herlocker, C. E.,＆Anderson, C. A. (1998). Multiple facets of self-esteem and their relations to depressive symptoms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 657-668.
Kernis, M.H., & Goldman, B.M. (2003). Stability and malleability in self-concept and self-esteem. In M. R. Leary ＆ J. P. Tangey (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity. New York: The Guilford Press.
Kick, F. R. (1992). The self perceptions of self-concept and self-esteem: A theoretical analysis. ERIC Document Reproduction Service NO. ED 353529.
Leary, M. R., & MacDonald, G. (2003). Individual differences in self-esteem: A review and theoretical integration. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangey (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity. New York: The Guilford Press.
Levine, S. R., Wyer, J. R., Schwarz, N. (1994). Are you what you feel? The affective and cognitive determinants of self-judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 63-77.
Losel, F., ＆ Bliesener, T. (1994). Some high-risk adolescents do not develop conduct problems: A study of protective factors. International Journal of Behaviorsl Development, 16(4), 753-777.
Lu, L. (陸洛), & Kao, S. F. (高旭繁) (2002). Traditional and modern characteristics across the generations: Similarities and discrepancies. Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 45-59.
Markus, H. R. (1977). Self-schemata and processing information about the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63-78.
Markus, H., ＆ Kunda, Z. (1986). Stability and malleability of the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 858-866.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self：Implications for cognition, motion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1994). A collective fear of the collective: Implication for selves and the theory of selves. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 569-579.
Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper.
Matthews, G., ＆ Deary, I. J. (2000). Personality traits. New York: Cambridge University Press
McMahan, I. D. (1982). Expectancy of success on sex-linked tasks. Sex Roles：A Journal of Research, 8(9), 949-958.
Mead, G. H. (1960). Mind, self, and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Rogers, C. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationship, as developed in the client-centered framework. In M. S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology：A study of science: Vol.3. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Book.
Rosenberg, M. (1986). Self-concept from middle childhood through adolescence. In J. Sule, ＆ A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological Perspective of The Self. Vol.3,pp.107-136. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rosenberg, M. C., Schooler, C., Schoenbach, C., ＆ Rosenberg, F. (1995). Global self-esteem and specific self-esteem: Different concepts, different outcomes. American Sociological Review, 60, 141-56.
Scherer, K. R., Wallbott, H. G., & Summerfield, A. B. (1986). Experiencing emotion: a cross-cultural study. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Spielberger, C. D. (1966). Anxiety and behavior. New York: Academic Press.
Spielberger, C. D. (1975). Anxiety: State-trait-process. In C. D. Spielberger & I. G. Sarason (Eds.), Stress and anxiety, Vol. 1. New York: Halsted Press.
Street, S., & Isaacs, M. (1998). Self-esteem: Justifying its existence. Professional School Counseling, 1, 46–50.
Swann, W. B., Jr. (1987). Identity negotiation: Where two roads meet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1038-1051.
Tafarodi, R. W., ＆ Swann, W. B., Jr. (1995). Self-liking and self-competences as dimensions of global self-esteem: Initial validation of measure. Journal of Personality Assessment. 65, 322-342.
Taylor, S. E., ＆ Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193-210.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories：Studies in social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96(3), 506-520.
Walz, G. R., & Bleuer, J. C. (1992). Student self- esteem: A vital element of school success. Ann Arbor, MI: ERIC/CAPS.
Well, L. E., & Marwell, G. (1976). Self-esteem: Its conceptualization and measurement. CA: Sage.
Werner, E. E. (1993). Risk, resilience, and recovery: Perspectives from the Kauai Longitudinal Study. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 503-515.
Yang, K. S. (楊國樞) (1995). Chinese social orientation: An integrative analysis. In W. S. Tseng, T. Y. Lin, & Y. K. Yeh (Eds.), Chinese societies and mental health. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Yang, K. S. (楊國樞) (1996). Psychological transformation of the Chinese people as a result of societal modernization. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Yang, K. S. (楊國樞) (2003). Beyond Maslow’s culture-bound linear theory: A preliminary statement of the Double-Y model of basic human needs. In V. Murphy-Berman and J. Berman (Eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation：Cross-cultural differences in perspectives on the self: Vol. 49. Lincoln, NE：University of Nebraska Press.
Yang, K. S. (楊國樞) (2004). Toward a theory of the Chinese self：Conceptual analysis in terms of social orientation and individual orientation. 見《「華人的自我歷程、自我概念及自我評價」研討會會議手冊暨論文集》。宜蘭縣礁溪：佛光人文社會學院心理學研究所。.