在这里强调一下,我们需要把每一个网页都认作是一个带有作者的文档,因此使用网站上的信息,我们也必须在论文里面正确引用每个网站。举个例子,比如你在论文中引用Steven Pinker的书《The Language Instinct》
,
你可能会很自然地认为需要在论文中加上明确的引用信息。但是,如果你从
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Web site
网站上找到一些类似的信息,你可能会觉得不需要提供引用信息了。 即使和一篇印刷文章相比,网站上的文章我们可能不太容易找到作者的信息,或者根本没有提供作者的信息,你也有责任做好正确的引用。无论文献的来源是什么,或者文献的作者是否明显,你始终都需要提供文献的来源。
Political transitions brought about by the collapse of authoritarian rule, democratization, or political reforms also make states particularly prone to violence.28 The emergence and rise of exclusionary national ideologies, such as ethnic nationalism and religious fundamentalism, can be destabilizing as well. The emergence of dehumanizing ideologies, which literally deny the humanity of other ethnic groups, is particularly dangerous because it is often the precursor to genocidal slaughter.29
–Brown Michael E. “The Causes of Internal Conflict: An Overview.”
Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict.
Ed. Michael E. Brown et al. Cambridge: MIT, 2001. 14. Print.
In the case of Rwanda, both overt ethnic discrimination and a weak state led to genocide. The state had not protected the civil liberties of the Tutsis, thus failing to uphold true democratic principles.
In fact, political transitions brought about by the collapse of authoritarian rule, democratization, or political reforms also make states particularly prone to violence. The emergence and rise of exclusionary national ideologies, such as ethnic nationalism and religious fundamentalism, can be destabilizing as well. The emergence of dehumanizing ideologies is often the precursor to genocidal slaughter.
符合学术规范的版本 #1(带有引用信息的直接引用)
In the case of Rwanda, both overt ethnic discrimination and a weak state led to genocide. The state had not protected the civil liberties of the Tutsis, thus failing to uphold true democratic principles.
In fact, Brown notes that “political transitions brought about by the collapse of authoritarian rule, democratization, or political reforms also make states particularly prone to violence. The emergence and rise of exclusionary national ideologies, such as ethnic nationalism and religious fundamentalism, can be destabilizing as well. The emergence of dehumanizing ideologies… is often the precursor to genocidal slaughter” (14).
符合学术规范的版本 #2 (带有引用信息的Paraphrase)
In the case of Rwanda, both overt ethnic discrimination and a weak state led to genocide. The state had not protected the civil liberties of the Tutsis, thus failing to uphold true democratic principles.
In fact, as Michael Brown suggests, violence often results from the end of an authoritarian government and its replacement with a more democratic society. Violence is also more likely when an authoritarian society gives way to ethnic nationalism or religious fundamentalism. When emerging ideologies dehumanize certain ethnic groups, the conditions are also ripe for genocide (14).
在这个版本中,学生用自己的语言表达了原作者的观点,但是明确给出了原作者的信息 (“Michael Brown suggests…”) ,同时给出了引用来源的页码(此处使用的是MLA引用格式)。
原文 #1
An episode of
Scrubs
off a DVD (without commercials) is only 22 minutes long. A 22-minute episode followed by a 5-minute break and a 22-minute discussion will be more engaging and more memorable to the students than a lecture…
One need not agree with all elements of the story for it to have educational value. What is accurate and what is inaccurate are grist for a good discussion, and encourages student participation more than any article that just tells them what to believe. Furthermore, watching people and hearing their voices provide much better tests of clinical skills of observation than merely reading words on a page. One must
see
a patient’s body language and
hear
her tone of voice in order to learn how to observe (or how to hone one’s skills).
–Spike, Jeffrey. (2008). Television viewing and ethical reasoning: Why watching
Scrubs
does a better job than most bioethics classes.
The American Journal of Bioethics, 8
(12), 11-13.
原文 #2
Indeed, of the more than 3500 hours of instruction during medical school, an average of less than 60 hours are devoted to all of bioethics, health law and health economics
combined
. Most of the instruction is during the preclinical courses, leaving very little instructional time when students are experiencing bioethical or legal challenges during their hands-on, clinical training. More than 60 percent of the instructors in bioethics, health law, and health economics have not published since 1990 on the topic they are teaching.
–Persad, G.C., Elder, L., Sedig, L., Flores, L., & Emanuel, E. (2008) The current state of medical school education in bioethics, health law, and health economics.
Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics 36
, 89-94.
In order to advocate the use of the sitcom
Scrubs
as part of the medical education system, it is also important to look at the current bioethical curriculum. Medical school curriculum does not focus adequately on the moral issues that doctors face in the clinic. In fact, in more than 3500 hours of training that students undergo in medical school, only about 60 hours are focused on bioethics, health law, and health economics. It is also problematic that students receive this training before they actually go on to their hands-on, clinical training (Persad et al, 2008). Most of these hours are taught by instructors without current publications in the field.
By watching episodes of
Scrubs
, however, medical students would have the chance to watch people and hear their voices, providing a much better test of clinical skills of observation than you can get from reading words on a page. One must see a patient’s body language and hear her tone of voice if one is to become a better observer, and watching the patients on television would provide a good opportunity for medical students to do so.
Perhaps even more significantly, medical students would be introduced to certain issues, and while the experiences may not be their own, they would be effective in helping them to understand those experiences as they empathize with the characters.
关于empathy这一点的确是学生自己想法,但是这个想法其实是基于Spike这个文献的基础上的。
符合学术规范的版本
In order to advocate the use of the sitcom
Scrubs
as part of the medical education system, it is also important to look at the current bioethical curriculum. Medical school curriculum does not focus adequately on the moral issues that doctors face in the clinic. In fact, according to Persad et al. (2008), only about one percent of teaching time throughout the four years of medical school is spent on ethics. As the researchers argue, this presents a problem because the students are being taught about ethical issues before they have a chance to experience those issues themselves. They also note that more than sixty percent of instructors teaching bioethics to medical students have no recent publications in the subject.
Professor Jeffrey Spike (2008) proposes an unconventional solution: watching
Scrubs
. As he notes, simply in viewing the show, “watching people and hearing their voices provide much better tests of clinical skills of observation than merely reading words on a page”(p. 12). Perhaps even more significantly, medical students would be introduced to certain ethical dilemmas, and while the experiences may not be their own, they would be effective in helping them to understand those experiences as they empathize with the characters.
So in
Romeo and Juliet
, understandably in view of its early date, we cannot find that tragedy has fully emerged from the moral drama and the romantic comedy that dominated in the public theaters of Shakespeare’s earliest time. Here he attempted an amalgam of romantic comedy and the tragic idea, along with the assertion of a moral lesson which is given the final emphasis—although the force of that lesson is switched from the lovers to their parents. But tragedy is necessarily at odds with the moral: it is concerned with a permanent anguishing situation, not with one that can either be put right or be instrumental in teaching the survivors to do better.
–Leech, Clifford. “The Moral Tragedy of
Romeo and Juliet
.”
Critical Essays on
Romeo and Juliet. Ed. Joseph A. Porter. New York: G.K. Hall, 1997. 20. Print.
这个版本就是不充分地改写,是论文抄袭的一种形式。因为只是简单地换了几个词语,比如将”amalgam”换成了”mixture”,将”assertion of a moral lesson”换成了”asserts a moral lesson”,将”force”换成了 “impact”。但是其他的文字是原封不动的。
In his essay, “The Moral Tragedy of
Romeo and Juliet
,” Clifford Leech suggests that rather than being a straight tragedy,
Romeo and Juliet
is a mixture of romantic comedy and the tragic idea, and that it asserts a moral lesson which is given the final emphasis. The impact of the moral lesson is switched from the lovers to the parents (20).
符合学术规范版本 #1 (充分地改写,并且带有引用信息)
In his essay, “The Moral Tragedy of
Romeo and Juliet
,” Clifford Leech suggests that there is more to Romeo and Juliet than simply a gloom-and-doom tragedy of two people destined to die for their illicit love. According to Leech,
Romeo and Juliet
is part romantic comedy, part tragedy, part morality tale in which the moral lesson is learned at the end. But this moral lesson comes with a twist: Since the lovers are dead, their parents experience the consequences of their actions (20).
在这个版本中,学生用自己的语言介绍了原作者的想法,同时使用了正确的MLA引用格式。
符合学术规范版本 #2 (直接引用,并且带有引用信息)
In his essay, “The Moral Tragedy of
Romeo and Juliet
,” Clifford Leech suggests that there is more to
Romeo and Juliet
than simply a gloom-and-doom tragedy of two people destined to die for their illicit love. According to Leech, in
Romeo and Juliet
, Shakespeare “attempted an amalgam of romantic comedy and the tragic idea, along with the assertion of a moral lesson which is given the final emphasis—although the force of that lesson is switched from the lovers to their parents” (20).
The form of military compensation also limits the ability of military families to adapt to financial crises, potentially forcing them to turn to creditors. Much of military compensation comes in the form of non-fungible in-kind goods and services, rather than a traditional paycheck. Military health care, future tuition assistance, military housing, military food, access to commissaries, and access to military recreational facilities and entertainment are all important components of the compensation package for military personnel. Military recruiters understandably use these side benefits as a way of explaining and justifying relatively low military pay. Nevertheless, the non-fungible nature of non-cash compensation prevents military personnel from converting a significant portion of their resources to overcome income shocks and unexpected expenses.
–Graves, S.M., & Peterson, C.L. (2005). Predatory lending and the military: The law and geography of “payday” loans in military towns.
Ohio State Law Journal 66
, 27.
Besides the problem of low wages, however, military members are also faced with the reality that much of their compensation is not paid in cash. While civilians can allot their cash earnings to pay for, say, car repairs, a military household cannot convert their illiquid medical, housing, food, or tuition assistance benefits into cash to cover unexpected expenses. As a result, many military personnel find that the amount and the type of compensation they receive are not conducive to smoothing temporary spikes in expenditures.
这个版本直接用到了原文的想法,虽然进行了充分地改写,我们也需要提供原文作者的信息。
符合学术规范的版本
According to Graves and Peterson (2005), military members are faced not only with low wages, but with the reality that much of their compensation is not paid in cash. While civilians can allot their cash earnings to pay for, say, car repairs, a military household cannot convert their illiquid medical, housing, food, or tuition assistance benefits into cash to cover unexpected expenses. Graves and Peterson further explain that many military personnel find that the amount and the type of compensation they receive are not conducive to smoothing temporary spikes in expenditures.
More interested in the legal and moral aspects of world order than in the economic agenda supported by Hamiltonians, Wilsonians typically believe that American interests require that other countries accept basic American values and conduct both their foreign and domestic affairs accordingly. This school has much deeper roots farther back in American history than is sometimes recognized.
–Mead, Walter Russell.
Special Providence
. New York: Routledge, 2002. Print.
Wilsonians take the position “that American interests require that other countries accept basic American values and conduct both their foreign and domestic affairs accordingly.” An analysis of President Obama’s foreign policy goals, as articulated in his inaugural address, reveals strong Wilsonian tendencies.
虽然这里面给出了双引号,表明这句句子来源于别的文章,但是没有给出原文作者的信息。
符合学术规范的版本
Wilsonians take the position “that American interests require that other countries accept basic American values and conduct both their foreign and domestic affairs accordingly” (Mead 88). An analysis of President Obama’s foreign policy goals, as articulated in his inaugural address, reveals strong Wilsonian tendencies.
那么在与同学讨论中得到的想法应该如何做引用呢?课堂讨论中提出的想法通常是大家一起合作的结果,往往不是一个人思考的产物。但是,如果有某一个学生在讨论中明确提出一个想法,而你在论文中引用了这个想法,那么你应该提供这个学生的引用信息。在其他情况下,如果课堂讨论给了你一些想法和灵感,你可以在论文中加一个脚注,让你的读者知道讨论的信息。比如,你正在写关于
The Things They Carried
这本书的论文,
并且在某次课堂讨论中得到了想法,你可以在论文脚注上标注一下“I am indebted to the members of my Expos 20 section for sparking my thoughts about the role of the narrator as Greek Chorus in Tim O’Brien’s
The Things They Carried.”
,对你的同学表示感谢。